CORRLATES OF CRIME AND QUALITY OF LIFE IN OWERRI-URBAN, IMO STATE, NIGERIA

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1: Background to the Study

From the seminal works of Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim, Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, Cesare Lombrosso and Raffaela Garofallo, Edwin Sutherland and Thurstein Sellin, Paul Tapan and Larry Siegel, to the contemporary scholarly enterprises of Femi Odekunle and Darlington Iwarimie-Jaja, crime has varied definitional orientations. In this study, crime is conceived from the legal paradigm as any intentional or unintentional act of commission or omission in violation of and punishable by the Criminal Codes of a country (Igbo, 2007; Tapan, 1960). Itis a global social problem. Crime not only negatesecurity of human life and property, and arouse fear, it also hasadverse effects onhuman well-being (Krekel and Poprawe, 2014). Crime therefore, is one among the numerous factors that degradethe quality of life of human persons.

Edorgan, Bauer, Tuxillo and Mansfield (2012) posit that, quality of life, as it were, life-satisfaction, is the overall degree of satisfaction an individual feels he or she has achieved after a cognitive assessment of the various domains of their life, given the prevailing socio-economic and political imperatives. These various domains of life, Lambert, Elechi and Otu (2018) observed, include health, income, family, socials, leisure, work, personal safety and security.

However, many earlier studies, such asBello (2011), Hanson, Sawyer, Begle and Hubel (2010), Cohen (2008) and Iwarimie-Jaja (2003), reportthat, generally, crime has adverse effects on various domain of human life. Furthermore, later report byStickley, Koyanagi, Roberts, Goryakin and McKee (2015)observed that adverse effects of crime on human quality of life is a global social problem that cutsacross all levels of society - the individual, family, community, nation, and all socio-economic and demographic strata of life - the rich, the middle-class and the poor, as well as males, females, young and the old.

In recent times, crime and human quality of life relationship has become a contentious globalissue. This discourse attracts theattention of many criminologists, sociologists,psychologistsand otherscholars. Reports by these scholars show varied findings and conclusions. While some studies such as Bajpai and Sharma (2021), Otu and Agugua (2020) and Weje (2018)found that crime has adverse effects on the various domains of human life, others such as Olson, Sarver and Killian (2023), Olson, Martin and Connel (2021), Nwokeoma and Ndubueze (2018) and Kitchen and Williams (2010) argue to the contrary.

Webb and Wills-Herrera (2012) reports that, in most parts of the world, crimes such as advance fee fraud, armed-robbery, cyber-crime, banditry/terrorism, illicit drug use and trafficking, corruption, kidnapping, murder and many others are common experiences that jeopardize human quality of life. This implies that crime is abeyant to human life-satisfaction. Further to this, Hanson, et al., (2010) as well as Krekel and Poprawe (2014) note that, beside economic and political convulsions, one major single causative factor of decreased quality of human life is increased criminality. Moreover,Dustman & Fassani (2013), Arvin & Byron (2012), Cornaglia & Leigh (2011) and Detotto & Otrantto (2010) conclude that, societies with high crime levels tend to experience lower quality of life levels than those that do not. This again implicates crime as a quality of life stressor.

On the contrary, Kitchen and Williams (2010) as well as Michalos and Zumbo (2000) present a different report. Despite the challenges associated with crime, both studies concluded that, crime had no significant adverse effects on human quality of life. Though later study by Bajpai and Sharma (2021) found that happiness, albeit, life-satisfaction is higher in low-crime societies, and lower in high-crime societies, itcould not establish conclusivesignificant relationships between happiness and crime levels in some of the countries studied.

Research findings and conclusions on crime–quality of life nexus therefore differ as the researchers and their study areas.From different continents and countries of the world, study reports on crime-quality of life discourse vary.

In Europe, Krekel and Poprawe (2014) adopted a longitudinal survey design and investigated the effect of local crime on quality of life in both rural and urban Germany. Their report showed that local crime had significant negative effect on overall life-satisfaction, such that 1% increase in crime resulted to 0.043 standard deviation decrease in life-satisfaction. Their finding further revealed that violent crimes such as murder and rape caused more decrease in life-satisfaction than property crimes such as car theft and fraud, as the later increased by 1% causing 0.12 standard deviation of decrease in life-satisfaction. Similar research reports from Switzerland and the UKby Staubli, Killias & Frey (2014) and Green, Gilbertson & Grimsley (2002) respectively, agree no less.

In North-America,Olson et al.,(2023) investigated the crime–quality of life relationship inCanada. Their finding presented a contradictory relationship between crime and quality of life. While the bi-variate analysis showed that crime had no significant impact on quality of life, the logic regression analysis rather revealed that crime had significant adverse influence on quality of life. These two findings contradict one another.Despite these reported contradictions and challenges posed by crime, Olson et al., (2023) concludes that crime has no adverse effect on human quality of life in Canada, as Olson et al., (2021) also found.However, earlierstudies by Haider and Iamtrakul (2018) as well as Hanson et al., (2010) on crime – life satisfaction relationship in the USAconcludes that crime victimization is a profound stressor of human quality of life.

A cross-continental study by Alfaro-Beracoechea, Puente, DaCosta, Romero and Paez (2023) covered parts of the South-American continent. It confirms the existence of relationship between fear of crime and subjective well-being in the continent. Earlier, while Spencer and Liu (2019) studied Jamaica, Londono, Mesa, Cardona-Sosa and Toro (2016) researched various parts of Latin-America, and Wills-Herrera, Orozco, Forero-Pineda, Pardo and Andonova (2012) specifically investigated Colombia. All these three studies reports that crime and insecurity are profound threats to life-satisfaction in the North-American continent.

Reports from Asia paint similar picture. While Muthia and Isbah (2022) reports similar trend from Indonesia, Bajpai and Sharma (2021) in their cross-continent study, found that crime pose great threat to human happiness in India, Sri Lanka and the Philippines. Earlier in Indonesia, Kusuma, Hariyani and Hidayat (2019) reports that crime-life satisfaction nexus is real, as Sham, Hussein and Ismail (2013) found in Malaysia. “High crime rate among urban dwellers in the city…reduce the quality of life….” (Sham et al., 2013: 307), their report concludes.

From Oceania, Alfaro-Beracoechea et al’s (2023) cross-continental research covered New Zealand. They found that fear of crime has adverse effects on human subjective well-being. Aly (2016) and Cummins (2012) researched the crime- quality of life nexus in Australia. Both studies confirm the negative effects of crime sub-variables on quality of life in Australia.

Statistica Report (2024) shows that crime affects quality of human life in Africa. It further revealed that the cost of crime on human well-being is quite enormous in most African countries. This report corroborates previous findings by Gandu, Shekari and Kwaghmande (2023) and Adejoh, Attoh, Akinbode, Okoye and Adetayo (2022) that crime and violence are insidious twin-stressors of human quality of life in Africa. Following this, crime – quality of life discourse has become a contentious research issue in most African countries (Bajpai & Sharma, 2021; Okpuvwie, Akinyede, Tohozin & Toko, 2021; Davies & Hinks, 2010).

In South Africa, study reports show that high crime rate is one of the social factors that impede various domains of human quality of life(Bajpai & Sharma, 2021; Cordeiro, Kwend & Ntuli, 2020; Budhram & Geldenhuys, 2018; Mafini, 2015). Similar trends exist in Egypt (Statistica Report, 2024), as it does in Malawi (Davies & Hinks, 2010). Crime – quality of life nexus is also real in Ghana, asOwusu, Oteng-Ababio, Owusu and Wrigley-Asante (2016) rather found that, in less crime-prone urban areas, increase in crime level often results to decrease in life-satisfaction, than in crime-notoriousurban neighbourhoods. To Owusu, et al., this variation is accounted for by the crime-cultured neighbourhood psyche’ that subsists in the later, than the quantifiable negative influence crime has on an individual’s overall quality of life in Ghana.

Research reports in Nigeria are more revealing as the country like other parts of the world is undergoing the excruciating pains of its own share of this global menace. In South-west Nigeria, Adejoh et al., (2022) and Otu and Agugua (2020) studied Lagos. While the earlier studied residents of selected communities, the later studied transit college students. Both reported that fear of crime and the concern for safety affects most individuals’ subjective assessment of their personal well-being. In Oshogbo, Osun State, same South-west Nigeria, Farodoye, Olawuni, Oladehinde and Ayoola (2021) reported similar findings.

In Northern Nigeria, Okpuvwie et al., (2021) studied selected cities, as Tersoo and Terseer (2021) studied Gboko city in Benue State. While Okpuvwie et al., (2021) concludes that crime has significant influence on quality of life in northern Nigeria, Tersoo and Terseer found no significant correlation between crime and quality of life in Gboko city, Benue State, Northern Nigeria.

In South-south Nigeria, Weje (2018) studied the link between safety and quality of life in selected neighbourhoods in Port-Harcourt, Rivers State. The study found that high crime levels and public insecurity has negative influence on people’s subjective well-being.

Despite the paucity of research reports and scanty literature on crime – quality of life nexus in South-eastern Nigeria, Okoye, Obi-Nwosu, Muodumogu and Ezeodina (2019) found that exposure to crime and fear of crime has adverse effects on life-satisfaction in the region.However, Nwokeoma and Ndubueze’s (2018) study found no conclusive bearing between the crime of advance fee fraud and life-satisfaction in South-eastern Nigeria, contrary to Adigun, Adedibu and Abolade’s (2016) report on Owerri among other selected cities in Nigeria. The background to this study therefore is the need to scientifically evaluate the correlation between crime and quality of life in Owerri-Urban, Imo State,South-eastern Nigeria.

1.2: Statement of the Problem

Recent World Happiness Reports (2022/2023/2024) and other research findings indicate that there is general decrease in human quality of life across the globe. These reports further reveal continental, regional, sub-regionaland national variations. In specifics, World Happiness Report (2022) shows that, of the 146 countries surveyed between 2019 and 2021, Nigeria occupied the unenviable prominent 118^th position amidst countries with the lowest quality of life levels in the world. Moreover, findings from Positive Peace / Data Race Report (2024) show that Lagos, Nigeria occupied the first position as the city with the worst quality of life in the world.

Previous studies such as Gandu et al., (2023), Adejoh et al., (2022), Okpuvwie, et al., (2021), Tersoo & Terseer (2021) andOkoye et al., (2019) factored time and space differentials but generally concluded that beside economic challenges and political convulsions often exasperated by religious bigotry and fundamentalism, one single major causative factor of decreased quality of life is increased criminality. However, following other reports such as Ohagoro (2021) and Nwokeoma & Ndubueze (2018), observations indicate that despitethe general insecurity caused by increase in such crimes as advance fee fraud, armed-robbery, banditry/terrorism, corruption, kidnapping and murder in Owerri-Urban, Imo State, Nigeria, residents as well as visitors still seem to be their normal “Jolly-Good-Fellows”, feeling happy and tend to be generally satisfied with life. Irrespective of increased criminality, leisure, self-indulgent night-life, wholesome hospitality and entertaining good-life are still rife in Owerri, the capital-city of Imo State, South-eastern Nigeria.

Moreover, despite the ravaging effects of these crimes and incessant violence in other parts of Nigeria, the entire South-east geo-political zone, including Owerri-Urban still maintain its leading position as the most developed and progressive region that enjoy impressive quality of life levels in contemporary Nigeria. Though corroborative study reports from various countries of the world showthat criminality is related to quality of life, such reports from Owerri-urban andSouth-eastern Nigeria are scanty.

These problemsprovoke such pertinent questions as: What pattern of relationship exists between crime and quality of life in Owerri-urban? Can a crime-quality of life correlation be scientifically ascertained in Owerri-urban? How can the findings and conclusions of such study enrich the body of existing literature? What are the public-security, social-welfare and development policy implications of such reports?

Previous researchers have made several attempts to study crime – quality of life relationship in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria. For instance, Okoye et al., (2019) studied the relationship between crime-victimization, fear of crime and psychological trauma among Nigerian students. The study sample included students from Owerri-urban. However, the study’s youth-specific sample was too unrepresentative of Owerri-urban population to enable fair generalization. Therefore, the study’sfindings and conclusions about crime – quality of life relationship for the entire Owerri-urban population could be misleading.

Adigun et al., (2016) studied predictive crime modeling in Owerri-urban among other selected cities in Nigeria. Their work was the use of mathematical, statistical, geographical and computer models in crime mapping, analysis and prediction to improve crime and offender detection and law enforcement in Owerri-urban. It was not a study specifically focused on crime – quality of life relationship in the study area. Their findings and conclusions on crime – quality of life relationship in Owerri-urban therefore could be content faulty and deceptive. However, Adigun and Adedibu (2013) had earlier studied residents’ responses to crime in selected Nigerian cities including Owerri-urban. The factor-parameters adopted in the study were not only inappropriate, their findings and conclusions on crime – quality of life relationship in Owerri-urban were sketchy and spurious.

Ohagoro’s (2021) study was principally on urbanization – crime relationship in Owerri-urban. However, the statistical tools used in the analysis of crime – quality of life relationship in Owerri-urban were inadequate and lacked depth. The study findings and conclusions on crime – quality of life relationship in Owerri-urbantherefore could not be reliable.Moreover, no previous researcher has been able to evaluate the crime – quality of life relationship in Owerri-urban from a mixed method perspective.

The problem this study is thereforegeared to address isa scientific evaluation of therelationship between crime, operationalized as advance fee fraud, armed-robbery, banditry/terrorism, corruption, kidnapping, and murder on one hand,and quality of life operationalized as such domains of life-satisfaction as education, employment, health (life-expectancy), public safety (night-life), public service delivery, and social stability on the other, in Owerri-Urban, Imo State, Nigeria.The study also attempts to determine the particular crime that mostly affect quality of life on one hand, and the domain of life-satisfactionmostly affected by crime.

1.3: Research Questions

Following the above stated problems, this study seeks answers to the following questions:

What is the relationship between advance fee fraud and quality education in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria?
To what extent does armed-robbery affect employment in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria?
To what extent does banditry/terrorism relate with social stability in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria?
How does corruption affect public service delivery in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria?
How does the crime of kidnapping affect public safety (night-life) in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria?
How does the crime of murder affect the health (life-expectancy) of residents in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria?
Which specific crime mostly affects quality of life in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria?
Which specific domain of life-satisfaction is mostly affected by crime in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria?

1.4: Objectives of the Study

The generalobjective of this study is to investigate the relationship between crime and quality of life among human populations in Owerri-Urban, Imo State, Nigeria.The specific objectives therefore are to:

Investigate the relationship between advance fee fraud and education in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.
Analyze the extent of relationship between armed-robbery and employment in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.
Determine the extent banditry/terrorism jeopardizes social stability in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.
Evaluate how corruption affects public service delivery in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.
Ascertain how the crime of kidnapping hinders public safety (night-life)in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.
Establish how the crime of murder affects the health (life-expectancy) of residents in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.
Determine the crime that mostly affects quality of life in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.
Ascertain the specific domain of life-satisfaction which is mostly affected by crime in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.

1.5: The Study Hypotheses

To achieve the above objectives, eight NULL hypothesesare formulated to guide this study.

HYPOTHESIS 1: There is no significant relationship between advance fee fraud and education among residents of Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.

HYPOTHESIS 2: There is no significant relationship between armed-robbery and employment in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.

HYPOTHESIS 3: There is no significant relationship between banditry/terrorism and social stability in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.

HYPOTHESIS 4: There is no significant relationship between corruption and public service delivery in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.

HYPOTHESIS 5: There is no significant relationship between kidnapping and public safety (night- life) Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.

HYPOTHESIS 6: There is no significant relationship between murder andhealth (life- expectancy) of residents in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.

HYPOTHESIS 7: No specific crime has the most adverse effect on life-satisfaction in Owerri-urban, Imo State, Nigeria.

HYPOTHESIS 8: No specific domain of life-satisfaction is mostly affected by crime in Owerri- urban, Imo State, Nigeria.

1.6: Significance of the Study

The present study on the relationship between crime and quality of human life in Owerri-urban is significant in two major ways, theoretical significance and practical significance.

1.6.1: Theoretical Significance

The first theoretical significance of this study is that the findings and conclusions will either validate or invalidate some of the assumptions, postulations and hypotheses of the adopted theoretical frameworks. The novel findings, as they could possibly be, will provide new empirical foundation for either remodeling the theories or building new explanatory theories of crime and quality of life. This will not only be an extension of existing knowledge in criminological theory but an addition to empirical literature in the contentious crime – quality of life discourse.

Another theoretical significance of the present study is in the capacity of its findings to bring about theoretical paradigm shift on crime prevention and quality of life improvement. The findings of this study could produce improved knowledge and innovative methods of crime prevention, birthing model intervention programmes that could boost human quality of life not only in Owerri-urban, Imo State and South-east Nigeria, but the entire country and beyond.

1.6.2: Practical Significance

The practical significance of this study will be enormous. The first practical significance is that the findings will generate novel insights into the dynamics of crime – quality of life relationship in Owerri-urban. The findings and conclusions are expected to provide a more proactive problem-solving understanding of the complex adverse effects crime has on human quality of life, not only in Owerri-urban and other cities in Nigeria, but in other human societies.

Furthermore, the findings and recommendations of this study will benefit policy formulation, decision-makings and intervention programmes implementation to enhance crime control and prevention. It will also provoke the need for regional, national and transnational collaborative efforts between Governments (local, state and federal), Non-governmental Organizations (Sub-regional, regional and continental), law enforcement and security agencies, and development partners to improve crime control and prevention.

Nigeria is known to be enormously endowed with human, material and natural resources. Her present composite paradox of epileptic development is only a function of leadership mismanagement of criminality and inability to improve citizens’ quality of life (Chitimira & Animashaun, 2023; Adejoh et al., 2022; Okpuvwie et al., 2021; Crusack& Abiakalam, 2020; Uwaifo, 2018). Another practical significance of this study therefore is that implementation of its recommendations could bring about the much needed safer and more peaceful public environment,dominated by a happy and productive human-populationwhich provides fertile ground that boost wholesome economic growth and improved standard of living,attracting quantum foreign direct investments (F.D.Is.) and enhancing sustainable development on which these human development indices rest. This will be one sure-step to realizing the millennium development goals of the study area in particular, Imo State and Nigeria in general.

A further practical significance of the study is that it is the first of its kind to exclusively explore the relationship between crime and quality of life in Owerri-urban. It therefore has the practical significance of provoking future similar studies in other parts of Imo State, South-east Nigeria and the country as a whole.

1.7: Scope of the Study

The content-scope of this study is limited to

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